Income tax - Office for Budget Responsibility

This Forecast in-depth page has been updated with information available at the time of the October 2021 Economic and fiscal outlook.

Taxes on different forms of personal income provide the biggest source of revenue for government. In 2021-22 we estimate that income tax will raise £213.2 billion. This represents 24.7 per cent of all receipts and is equivalent to £7,600 per household and 9.2 per cent of national income.

The main reason that income tax is the biggest source of revenue is that personal income makes up the majority of total national income. There are many sources of personal income on which income tax is levied. These include: labour income (the wages and salaries of employees and earnings of the self-employed), income from investments (including interest on savings and the rental income from buy-to-let properties) and pensions income (from both the state pension and any occupational or private pensions).

Income tax is collected in a variety of different ways:

For the majority of employees, it is paid via the pay-as-you-earn (PAYE) system. The amount of tax to be paid is calculated by the employer and transferred directly to the tax authorities (HMRC). This is also known as being deducted at source. It means the individual does not need to deal directly with HMRC and that the tax is paid promptly.
For some taxpayers it is paid via the self-assessment (SA) system. The amount of tax to be paid is calculated by the individual and declared on a tax return sent to HMRC. Tax returns and associated payments are completed after the tax year has ended – in most cases in the following January (so January 2022 for the 2020-21 tax year).
Other smaller sources of income tax include company income tax, non-SA repayments (for example, when employees have paid too much tax through the PAYE system), investigation settlements and some receipts that cannot be allocated to a particular source.

Some income tax has already been devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the National Assembly for Wales. For more information see our webpages on fiscal devolution.

For most employees, National Insurance Contributions (NICs) are also deducted at source while the self-employed pay NICs via SA.

Last updated: 4 Apr 2022

Recent trends and latest forecast

The charts below show income tax receipts in both cash terms and as a share of national income (GDP), along with our October 2021 Economic and fiscal outlook (EFO) central forecast.

Receipts measured in cash terms are a simple metric for analysing trends over time. But without putting the cash amount into context – by asking how much national income is available to be taxed – interpreting changes in cash receipts is difficult, particularly over long time periods.

Trends in receipts as a share of GDP are useful to understand how they move in line with the underlying economic activity that is being taxed. In cash terms, both receipts and GDP will tend to rise over time because of economic growth and inflation. Receipts as a share of GDP is the most relevant metric when considering the sustainability of the public finances. Movements in this ratio can be thought of in two parts – movements in the tax base relative to national income (i.e. whether asset prices have grown faster or slower than the whole economy) and changes in the effective tax rate (i.e. the amount of tax raised per unit of the tax base).

Until recently, PAYE income tax receipts continued to rise in cash terms while falling as a share of GDP. This primarily reflected weak growth in the tax base as average earnings – a key driver of personal income growth – often rose more slowly than inflation. Weak average earnings growth more than offset the effect on total income from strong employment growth. In 2020-21, PAYE income tax receipts rose slightly in cash terms and more sharply as a share of GDP, as growth in receipts outpaced GDP growth. This outperformance was largely the result of pandemic-related policy measures that supported incomes in the face of sharp falls in output and expenditure. We expect this modest rise to be partially reversed in 2021-22, with receipts slightly underperforming nominal GDP.

Over the past ten years or so, policy measures have lowered the effective tax rate – in particular increases to the personal allowance. From 2021-22 onwards we expect the effective tax rate to rise as the personal allowance and higher-rate threshold are frozen, with a higher path for inflation and wage growth meaning more income is subject to tax and a greater proportion taxed at a higher rate. More detail on the changes to public sector receipts between 2007-08 and 2018-19 can be found in Working paper No 15.

Like PAYE income tax receipts, SA income tax receipts fell sharply as a share of GDP following the financial crisis. That reflected a fall in the effective tax rate driven by a variety of factors, including a greater share of overall self-employment income coming from lower earners for whom a larger share of their income is covered by the tax-free personal allowance. This trend reversed from 2014-15, leaving SA income tax receipts in 2019-20 at a similar level relative to GDP as in 2007-08. This was partly driven by policy changes such as the rise in dividend tax. During 2020-21 SA receipts fell, in large part driven by lower self-employment but tempered by self-employment income support scheme grants which propped up the incomes of around 3 million self-employed individuals. We expect SA receipts to remain fairly flat until 2023-24.

PAYE income tax: ONS (ID: MS6W)

SA income tax: ONS (ID: LISB)

Other income tax: ONS (ID: MF6X)

More detail can be found in paragraphs 3.24 to 3.27 of our October EFO. We usually describe income tax and NICs together in our publications, given their similar underlying drivers.

Last updated: 4 Apr 2022

Forecast methodology

Forecast process

The OBR commissions forecasts of income tax receipts from HM Revenue and Customs for each fiscal event. The forecasts start by generating an in-year estimate for receipts in the current year, then use different models to forecast growth in receipts from that starting point. We provide HMRC with economic forecasts that are then used to generate the tax forecasts. These are scrutinised in a challenge process that typically involves two rounds of meetings where HMRC analysts present forecasts to the Budget Responsibility Committee and OBR staff. This process allows the BRC to refine the assumptions and judgements that underpin the forecasts before they are published in our Economic and fiscal outlooks (EFOs).

Forecasting models

PAYE income tax

The PAYE income tax model takes our forecasts of employment and earnings and applies an average (‘effective’) tax rate and a marginal tax rate respectively to them to generate a forecast of PAYE tax receipts.

HMRC estimates the effective tax rate on wages and salaries using their Personal Tax Model (PTM) – a micro-simulation model based on a survey of taxpayers’ liabilities. This model calculates the average marginal tax rate on additional income by taking account of reliefs, allowances and our assumptions on inflation and any differences in earnings growth at different points in the earnings distribution. The model then applies these tax rate forecasts to income growth to generate a receipts forecast.

The effects of previously announced policy measures that have not yet been fully implemented, off-model factors such as the effect from incorporations and any new policy measures announced by the Government are then added on to generate our final forecast.

SA income tax

The SA IT forecast starts by splitting up historical tax return data into key income streams (e.g. sole traders’ profits, dividend receipts, savings income, land and property income). These income streams are then projected forward using determinants from our forecasts. Average effective tax rates are then calculated using the same Personal Tax Model (PTM). These average effective tax rates are applied to the forecast income streams to create a SA liability forecast.

SA income tax is generally paid in the financial year after the SA liability arises. To account for this, the SA liability forecast is converted to receipts using timing information from previous years. Future changes to the tax system (announced as Budget measures) and other ‘off-model’ factors are also included in the forecast.

Other income tax

Other minor streams of income tax are forecast in line with historical trends.

Devolved income tax

Income tax devolved to the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales is forecast by aggregating the relevant whole UK income tax streams and applying an estimate of the share attributable to Scotland or Wales. For more information see our Devolved tax and spending forecasts and Welsh taxes outlook publications.

Main forecast determinants

The main determinants of our income tax forecast are those related to the tax base and those that are used by the Government to set the parameters of the tax system. See the ready reckoners section below for more information on the effects of these determinants on income tax receipts.

- Average earnings
- Employment
- Inflation
- Other SA income tax streams (i.e. income from self-employment, dividends and other forms of income)

Main forecast judgements

The most important judgements in our income tax forecast are related to the economy forecast that underpins it – primarily the outlook for productivity growth and hence earnings growth. Alongside those, we need to make several other forecast judgements. These include:

- In-year estimate – Our estimate for income tax receipts in the current year is determined by performance of receipts year-to-date, our economy forecast and any other indications from the HMRC model. The in-year estimate determines the base year from which we use our models to forecast receipts growth. For PAYE income tax, it implicitly reflects the average effective tax rate on wages and salaries.
- Differential earnings growth – Given the importance of the shape of the income distribution for PAYE receipts, we allow for differential earnings growth across it when calculating the average and marginal tax rates for the forecast. The top-end of the income distribution is more ‘tax-rich’ as the average tax rate broadly rises in line with income, so this is an important judgement in the forecast.
- Assumption on bonuses – PAYE income tax receipts are received disproportionately towards the end of the financial year, reflecting the tax paid on end-of-year bonuses. Our assumptions on financial and non-financial sector bonus growth drive our expectations of these end-of-year receipts.
- Incorporations – Our PAYE, SA, NICs and corporation tax (CT) forecasts are affected by our assumption that incorporations will continue their rising trend. Employment income is taxed more heavily than profits and dividends, so when formerly employed or self-employed individuals incorporate, their tax bills generally fall and the government loses income tax revenue. (See Box 4.1 of our November 2016 EFO for more detail.)
- Assumptions about forestalling – The path of SA income tax receipts has been significantly affected by income shifting (largely of dividends) in response to policy measures such as the April 2016 dividend tax rise and the April 2013 cut in the additional rate of income tax to 45p, which created incentives to bring forward income flows ahead of the tax changes taking effect.

Last updated: 4 Apr 2022

Previous forecasts

PAYE income tax receipts were significantly weaker than our initial forecasts, in part reflecting weak average earnings growth. But this also reflects movements in tax thresholds that were not factored into our early forecasts (due to differences in inflation and to successive policy measures to raise the personal allowance) as well as the composition of employment gains, which were concentrated in lower-paid industries and age groups, where a larger proportion of each individual’s earnings are subject to the personal allowance.

Employment growth was stronger than expected, but was not sufficiently strong to offset the effect of slower growth in earnings. Following the large downward revisions to our economy forecasts in December 2012 and March 2013, PAYE income tax receipts were much closer to forecast. The economy forecast was further revised downward in November 2016, since when PAYE income tax receipts have performed better than forecast, largely because of stronger earnings growth despite the weaker economy.

SA income tax receipts also fell short of our earlier forecasts. As with PAYE income tax, this partly reflected a less tax-rich mix of labour income growth than expected, with more growth through employment and less through earnings. The distribution of incomes, notably for new workers and among the self-employed, was also skewed towards the lower end. Tax thresholds were also higher relative to earnings, initially due to higher inflation but also due to policy-driven increases in the personal allowance. Again, receipts have performed better than forecast since our November 2016 forecast.

The coronavirus outbreak and the public health measures taken to contain it have led to a significant decline in economic activity, and hence total receipts in 2020-21. Income tax receipts have held up well relative to the rest of the economy, in large part thanks to the Government’s income support schemes and as employment and earnings for those in the upper half of the income distribution have been less affected. Income tax receipts as a share of GDP have spiked upwards in 2020-21. In cash terms, 2020-21 receipts are marginally up on 2019-20, but the forecast is significantly below pre-crisis paths.

Last updated: 4 Apr 2022

Policy measures

Since our first forecast in June 2010, governments have announced a large number of policy measures affecting our forecast for income tax. The original costings for these measures are contained in our policy measures database and were described briefly in the Treasury’s relevant Policy costings document. For measures announced since December 2014, the uncertainty ranking that we assigned to each policy is set out in a separate database. For those deemed ‘high’ or ‘very high’ uncertainty, the rationale for that ranking was set out in Annex A of the relevant Economic and fiscal outlook.

Key income tax policy changes since 2010 have included:

- Several above-inflation increases in the personal allowance. These have steadily increased the amount of earned income that is not subject to income tax. In 2010-11, the personal allowance for those aged under 65 was £6,475 a year. By 2019-20 this had almost doubled to £12,500. If the personal allowance had increased in line with the Government’s stated uprating policy in 2010-11, it would have reached £8,600 in 2019-20 – which is £3,900 (just over 30 per cent) less than the actual threshold.
- By contrast, the personal allowance was frozen at its 2021-22 level for the subsequent four years in the March 2021 Budget.
- Changes to the higher rate threshold. Under the coalition government, the higher rate threshold was lower at the end of the Parliament than in 2010. Subsequently there were above-inflation increases for 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2019-20 to meet the Government’s aim of a £50,000 higher rate threshold. As with the personal allowance, the higher rate threshold was frozen at its 2021-22 level for the subsequent four years in the March 2021 Budget.
- Reforms to pensions and savings policy. These include restrictions to the pensions annual and lifetime allowance, additional pensions flexibility, changes to ISA limits and the introduction of a ‘Lifetime ISA’. Our 2016 working paper Private pensions and savings: the long-term effect of recent policy measures sets those changes out in more detail, while our 2019 Fiscal risks report discusses pensions tax relief more broadly.
- Dividend taxation. Reforms to the taxation of dividend income were made in Summer Budget 2015. The basic, higher and additional rates were raised by 7.5 percentage points and a tax-free allowance introduced on the first £5,000 of dividend income (later reduced to £2,000). We allowed for substantial income shifting ahead of the dividend tax rise. From April 2022, tax on dividend income will increase by 1.25 percentage points as part of the health and social care levy reforms.
- Anti-avoidance measures. Since 2010, the Government has announced a large number of policy measures aimed at reducing the level of tax avoidance and evasion and to enhance the compliance performance of HMRC. These measures have been one of the Government’s preferred sources of revenue-raising in recent Budgets and Spring/Autumn Statements and costing these types of measures is typically subject to considerable uncertainty. Our 2016 working paper Anti-avoidance costings: an evaluation provides more detail.
- SA deferrals. To help the self-employed manage their cash-flow during the coronavirus crisis, the Government announced measures that allowed taxpayers to defer payments on account and their January 2021 SA balancing payments. Take-up of the schemes was less than expected. Box 3.2 in our December 2021 Forecast evaluation report provides an update on the take-up of these measures.

Last updated: 4 Apr 2022

Ready reckoners

‘Ready reckoners’ show how our fiscal forecasts could be affected by changes in selected economic determinants. They are stylised quantifications that reflect the typical impact of changes in economic variables on receipts and spending. These estimates are specific to our October 2021 forecast and we would expect them to become outdated over time, as the economy and public finances, and the policy setting, continue to evolve. They are subject to uncertainty because they are based on models that draw on historical relationships or simulations of policy settings. More information can be found in the ‘Tax and spending ready reckoners’ spreadsheet we published on the data section of our website.

The table below shows that:

- Changes in labour income have a large impact on income tax receipts. Staggered income tax thresholds mean that receipts rise (and fall) proportionately more than changes in labour income, and receipts are more geared towards earnings than employment.
- Increases in self-employment and other streams of income also feed through into receipts, but with a time lag given the self-assessment system which requires taxpayers to file returns by the January after the financial year.


Determinant	Direct impact on tax of 1 per cent increase in 2022-23
Average earnings	£3.0 billion rising to £3.4 billion by the end of the forecast
Employment	£1.7 billion rising to £2.0 billion by the end of the forecast
Dividend income	£0.1 billion each year of the forecast
Land and property income	£0.1 billion, with a year lag
Interest rate	£1.4 billion rising to £1.9 billion by the end of the forecast
Self-employment income	£0.2 billion rising to £0.3 billion by the end of the forecast
Note: These are ballpark figures that are specific to the October 2021 EFO forecast. The actual effects will differ over time, as policy and our forecast continue to evolve.

Boxes

Within each of our key publications we include topical ‘boxes’. These self-contained analyses are unique to this publication and tend to cover recent developments in the economy or public finances that complement the main discussion of our analyses.

Forecast evaluation report - December 2021 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 37

Tax implications of pandemic-induced changes in the income distribution

Chart 3.A: Changes in pay and tax receipts across the employee earnings distribution between 2019-20 and 2020-21

The impact of the pandemic and the national lockdowns has not been equal across the earnings distribution. While it was expected that income tax receipts would be significantly impacted, this box showed that the growth in receipts from higher earners has more than outweighed the fall in receipts from the lowest earners.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax

Cross-cutting categories: Coronavirus

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2011 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 39

The impact of policy changes on the economic forecast

In each Economic and fiscal outlook we publish a box that summarises the effects of the Government’s new policy measures on our economy forecast. These include the overall effect of the package of measures and any specific effects of individual measures that we deem to be sufficiently material to have wider indirect effects on the economy. In our March 2011 Economic and Fiscal Outlook, we made adjustments to our forecast of inflation.

Economy categories: Inflation

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Fuel duty, Income tax, Corporation tax

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2013 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 42

The economic effects of policy measures

In each Economic and fiscal outlook we publish a box that summarises the effects of the Government’s new policy measures on our economy forecast. These include the overall effect of the package of measures and any specific effects of individual measures that we deem to be sufficiently material to have wider indirect effects on the economy. In our March 2013 Economic and Fiscal Outlook, we made adjustments to our forecasts of real GDP, business investment and inflation

Economy categories: Housing market, Property transactions, GDP by expenditure, Inflation, Business investment, Residential investment

Fiscal categories: Receipts, National Insurance Contributions, Income tax, Public spending, Corporation tax, Departmental spending

Forecast evaluation report - October 2017 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 44

Revisions to borrowing in 2016-17

Initial estimates of the deficit can be revised significantly over subsequent months as more reliable data become available. This box set out how our forecasts during 2016 and 2017 evolved and how the outturns for 2016-17 were revised over time.

Fiscal categories: VAT, Public sector net borrowing, Income tax, Corporation tax, Departmental spending, National Insurance Contributions

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2012 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 46

The economic effects of policy measures

In each Economic and fiscal outlook we publish a box that summarises the effects of the Government’s new policy measures on our economy forecast. These include the overall effect of the package of measures and any specific effects of individual measures that we deem to be sufficiently material to have wider indirect effects on the economy. In our March 2012 Economic and Fiscal Outlook, we made adjustments to our forecasts of real GDP, business investment and inflation.

Economy categories: GDP by income, Labour market, Household disposable income, GDP by expenditure, Inflation, Business investment

Fiscal categories: VAT, Income tax, Public spending, Corporation tax, Receipts, Welfare spending

Cross-cutting categories: Financial sector

Forecast evaluation report - October 2017 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 48

The receipts-to-GDP ratio since 1986-87

Strong overall receipts growth in 2016-17 took receipts as a share of GDP to their highest since 1986-87. This box explored how the composition of the public sector’s income has changed over the three decades since receipts were last at the latest share of GDP.

Fiscal categories: Income tax, Corporation tax, Receipts, National Insurance Contributions, VAT

Fiscal sustainability report - July 2012 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 56

Fiscal drag and price uprating

We updated our 2011 analysis of fiscal drag on income tax and NICs to reflect new data, our latest assumptions and the effect of measures announced over the past year. This box outlined how fiscal drag effects income tax and NICs receipts and the long-term assumptions used.

Fiscal categories: Welfare spending, Financial transactions, National Insurance Contributions, Income tax, Student loans, State pension, Public spending, Receipts

Cross-cutting categories: Pensions, Fiscal drag and price uprating

Forecast evaluation report - October 2014 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 57

Effect of the additional rate of income tax on receipts

An additional rate of income tax of 50p for incomes over £150,000 was introduced in April 2010. Budget 2012 announced that this rate would be reduced to 45p from April 2013. This box explored how the incomes of those affected by this change evolved over this period - in particular the significance of forestalling and income shifting.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax

Cross-cutting categories: Forestalling

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2023 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 65

The impact of frozen or reduced personal tax thresholds

Table 3A: Latest costings of personal tax threshold measures

In our March 2023 Economic and fiscal outlook, we evaluate the impact of the freeze or reduction of various personal tax thresholds since April 2021. This box looked at the receipts generated by these measures as well as the impact on taxpayers: the number of new taxpayers these measures create and the number of taxpayers pulled into higher and additional rates.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Fuel duty, Income tax, Oil and gas revenues

Cross-cutting categories: Fiscal drag and price uprating

Fiscal sustainability report - July 2014 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 66

Fiscal drag and price uprating

We updated our July 2013 analysis of fiscal drag on income tax and NICs to reflect new data, our latest assumptions and the effect of measures announced over the past year. This box outlined how fiscal drag effects income tax and NICs receipts and the long-term assumptions used.

Fiscal categories: Welfare spending, Financial transactions, National Insurance Contributions, Income tax, Student loans, State pension, Public spending, Receipts

Cross-cutting categories: Fiscal drag and price uprating, Pensions

Forecast evaluation report - October 2013 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 72

The impact of forestalling on income tax receipts

An additional rate of income tax of 50p for incomes over £150,000 was introduced in April 2010. Budget 2012 announced that this rate would be reduced to 45p from April 2013. This box explored how incomes were shifted (forestalled) in response to these policy changes

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax

Cross-cutting categories: Forestalling

Fiscal sustainability report - July 2013 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 74

Fiscal drag and price uprating

We updated our 2012 analysis of fiscal drag on income tax and NICs to reflect new data, our latest assumptions and the effect of measures announced over the past year. This box outlined how fiscal drag effects income tax and NICs receipts and the long-term assumptions used.

Fiscal categories: Financial transactions, National Insurance Contributions, Income tax, Student loans, State pension, Public spending, Receipts, Welfare spending

Cross-cutting categories: Fiscal drag and price uprating, Pensions

Fiscal sustainability report - July 2020 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 84

Non-payment of tax liabilities in our scenarios

So far during the lockdown period, many businesses are struggling to meet their usual tax payment schedules and are seeking instead to delay those payments. In this box we considered the channels through which this might impact tax receipts and set out the key uncertainties in our medium-term scenario assumptions.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, National Insurance Contributions, VAT, Income tax

Cross-cutting categories: Coronavirus

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2022 | Box: 3.1 | Page: 88

Why have receipts recovered so strongly in the wake of the pandemic?

Chart 3.A: Real GDP and tax revenues: October forecast versus outturn

Since our October 2021 EFO the real economy has performed largely as expected in 21-22 but tax receipts have come in well above that forecast. In this box, we examined reasons why tax receipts have recovered so quickly particularly in comparison to economic data.

Economy categories: Nominal GDP

Fiscal categories: Receipts, VAT, Income tax, Corporation tax

Cross-cutting categories: Coronavirus

Fiscal sustainability report - July 2011 | Box: 4.1 | Page: 89

Tax revenues from the financial sector

The sectoral landscape of the economy had changed markedly with the financial sector becoming increasing important. This box examined implications for tax revenue arising from the financial sector.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax, Corporation tax

Cross-cutting categories: Financial sector

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2017 | Box: 4.1 | Page: 89

PAYE income tax and the distribution of wage growth

PAYE income tax is the Government’s single most important source of revenue, and one where our forecasts since 2010 have tended to be revised down over time. In this box from our March 2017 Economic and fiscal outlook, we explored the role that changes in the distribution of earnings might have played in explaining the shortfalls in income tax receipts.

Economy categories: Labour market, National Minimum Wage and National Living Wage, GDP by income, Average earnings

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2022 | Box: 3.2 | Page: 99

Why is the economy generating such strong income tax revenues?

Chart 3.C: Aggregate two-year pay growth in the first three quarters of 2021-22 and average effective tax rates by sector

This box considered the reasons for particular strength in income tax receipts since 2019. It covered the growth in aggregate pay across the income distribution using RTI data; looked at pay growth and effective tax rate by sector since 2019; and finally at how the freeze to tax thresholds from April 2022 will compound this strength in receipts.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax

Cross-cutting categories: Fiscal drag and price uprating

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2012 | Box: 4.2 | Page: 108

The additional rate of income tax

An additional rate of income tax of 50 per cent for incomes over £150,000 was introduced in April 2010. Budget 2012 announced that this rate would be reduced to 45 per cent from April 2013. This box set out how the Budget 2012 measure was costed, in particular the assumptions we made around behavioural responses and income shifting. Box 3.2 of our 2014 Forecast evaluation report reviewed this costing in detail.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax, Tax avoidance

Cross-cutting categories: Forestalling

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2017 | Box: 4.3 | Page: 111

The effect of dividend forestalling on self-assessment receipts

Ahead of our March 2017 Economic and fiscal outlook, self-assessment tax receipts indicated that the Summer Budget 2015 reforms to the taxation of individual dividend income had prompted even greater income shifting than we had expected. The reforms raised the basic, higher and additional rates by 7.5 percentage points from April 2016 and introduced a tax-free allowance on the first £5,000 of taxable annual dividend income. They were pre-announced, giving taxpayers around eight months to bring forward dividend income into 2015-16 so that it was taxed at the lower rate. This box considered the amount of income brought forward and the effect of that on tax receipts.

Fiscal categories: Receipts, Income tax

Cross-cutting categories: Forestalling

Economic and fiscal outlook - November 2011 | Box: 4.1 | Page: 114

Impact of interest rates on the public finances

This box set out the impact of changes in interest rates on our public finances forecast, including debt interest spending and income tax receipts. Updated versions of our ready reckoners can be found on our website.

Fiscal categories: Public spending, Receipts, Debt interest spending, Income tax, Corporation tax

Cross-cutting categories: Financial sector, Monetary policy

Economic and fiscal outlook - November 2016 | Box: 4.1 | Page: 121

The effect of incorporations on tax receipts

Our PAYE, SA, NICs and corporation tax (CT) forecasts are affected by our assumption that incorporations will continue their rising trend. This box covered historical estimates, the modelling of the receipts effects from incorporations and the implications for the forecast.

Fiscal categories: Corporation tax, Receipts, National Insurance Contributions, VAT, Income tax

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2020 | Box: 3.6 | Page: 131

The effect of the new migration regime on our fiscal forecast

In February 2020, the Government announced its intention to introduce a ‘points-based’ migration system from January 2021 that will align migration policy for EU and non-EU migrants. In this box we looked at the effect of the new migration regime on our borrowing forecast.

Economy categories: Population and migration

Fiscal categories: Income tax, Welfare spending, National Insurance Contributions

Cross-cutting categories: Brexit and the EU

Economic and fiscal outlook - March 2011 | Box: 4.3 | Page: 144

Impact of inflation on the public finances

This box set out the various impacts that higher inflation has on the public finances. These include direct effects (e.g. on income tax and debt interest spending), the impact on nominal tax bases (such as household consumption) and the impact on departmental spending.

Economy categories: Inflation

Fiscal categories: Public spending, Departmental spending, Receipts, Welfare spending, National Insurance Contributions, VAT, Business rates, Income tax, State pension, Public service pension payments

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